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WAR
AND PEACE IN INDIA, 1845-46
Great Britain extended its rule over
the Indian subcontinent in literally hundreds of different wars and
treaties with multitudes of native rulers. In imperial eyes, each
of these actions was justified by the behaviour of the Indians, who
had only themselves to blame for any territory they lost or any sovereignty
they ceded. The East India Company, a commercial firm, acted as political
agent for the British state until 1858, when the Crown took over directly.
Read the two documents below, relating
to British relations with the Sikh state of Lahore, in the Punjab
(now divided between India and Pakistan), and answer the following
questions
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Read the document below and answer the
following questions:
1. According to these documents, who
started the war between the British and Lahore? How?
2. Do you accept this interpretation
of the origins of the war? What other interpretations might
there be? What kinds of evidence might we look for to support
alternative interpretations?
3. Do the British condemn all of the
Indian chiefs and rulers, or only some? On what basis do they
distinguish good from bad rulers?
4. What punishments or penalties did
the British impose on those who opposed them?
5. What rewards did the British offer
to those Indians who supported them?
6. Would you expect the 1846 treaty to
create a lasting peace between the British and Lahore?
Why or why not?
7. What is the purpose of Article 11
of the treaty?
8. Is it more useful to study a situation
like this in terms of specific local causes and consequences,
or to see it as part of a larger pattern of British expansion
in Asia?
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[A] Declaration of War: Proclamation
by the Governor General of India, December 13th 1845.
The British Government has ever been
on terms of friendship with that of the Punjab.
In the year 1809, a treaty of amity and
concord was concluded between the British Government and the late
Muharaja [Maharajah] Runjeet Singh, the conditions of which have
always been faithfully observed by the British Government, and were
scrupulously fulfilled by the late Muharaja.
The same friendly relations have been
maintained with the successors of Muharaja Runjeet Singh by the
British Government up to the present time.
Since the death of the late Muharaja
Shere Singh, the disorganized state of the Lahore Government has
made it incumbent on the Governor General in Council to adopt precautionary
measures for the protection of the British frontier; the nature
of these measures, and the cause of their adoption, were, at the
time, fully explained to the Lahore Durbar [Court].
Notwithstanding the disorganized state
of the Lahore Government during the last two years, and many most
unfriendly proceedings on the part of the Durbar, the Governor General
has continued to evince his desire to maintain the relations of
amity and concord which had so long existed between the two States,
for the mutual interests and happiness of both. He has shown, on
every occasion, the utmost forbearance, from consideration to the
helpless state of the infant Muharaja Dhuleep Singh, whom the British
Government had recognized as the successor to the late Muharaja
Shere Singh.
The Governor General
sincerely desired
to see a strong Sikh Government re-established in the Punjab, able
to control its army, and to protect its subjects; he had not, up
to the present moment, abandoned the hope of seeing that important
object effected by the patriotic efforts of the Chiefs and people
of that country.
The Sikh army recently marched from Lahore
towards the British frontier, as it was alleged, by the orders of
the Durbar, for the purpose of invading the British territory.
The Governor General's agent
demanded
an explanation of this movement, and no reply being returned within
a reasonable time, the demand was repeated. The Governor General,
unwilling to believe in the hostile intentions of the Sikh Government,
to which no provocation had been given, refrained from taking any
measures which might have a tendency to embarrass the Government
of the Muharaja, or to induce collision between the two States.
When no reply was given to the repeated
demand for explanation, while active military preparations were
continued at Lahore, the Governor General considered it necessary
to order the advance of troops towards the frontier, to reinforce
the frontier posts.
The Sikh army has now, without a shadow
of provocation, invaded the British territories.
The Governor General must therefore take
measures for effectually protecting the British provinces, for vindicating
the authority of the British Government, and for punishing the violators
of treaties and the disturbers of the public peace.
The Governor General hereby declares
the possessions of Muharaja Dhuleep Singh, on the left or British
bank of the [river] Sutlej, confiscated and annexed to the British
territories.
The Governor General will respect the
existing rights of all Jagheerdars, Zemindars [indigenous landholders],
and tenants in the said possessions who, by the course they now
pursue, evince [show] their fidelity to the British Government.
The Governor General hereby calls upon
all the Chiefs and Sirdars [chiefs] in the protected territories
to cooperate cordially with the British Government for the punishment
of the common enemy, and for the maintenance of order in these States.
Those of the Chiefs who show alacrity and fidelity in the discharge
of this duty, which they owe to the protecting power, will find
their interests promoted thereby and those who take a contrary course
will be treated as enemies to the British Government, and will be
punished accordingly.
The inhabitants of all the territories
on the left bank of the Sutlej are hereby directed to abide peaceably
in their respective villages, where they will receive efficient
protection by the British Government. All parties of men found in
armed bands, who can give no satisfactory account of their proceedings,
will be treated as disturbers of the public peace.
All subjects of the British Government,
and those who possess estates on both sides of the river Sutlej,
who, by their faithful adherence to the British Government, may
be liable to sustain loss, shall be indemnified and secured in all
their just rights and privileges.
On the other hand, all subjects of the
British Government who shall continue in the service of the Lahore
State, and who disobey the proclamation by not immediately returning
to their allegiance, will be liable to have their property on this
side the Sutlej confiscated, and themselves declared to be aliens
and enemies of the British Government.
[B] Treaty between the British Government
and the State of Lahore concluded at Lahore, on March 9th
1846.
Whereas the treaty of amity and concord,
which was concluded between the British Government and the late
Muharaja Runjeet Singh, ruler of Lahore, in 1809, was broken by
the unprovoked aggression on the British provinces of the Sikh army,
in December last: And whereas, on that occasion, by the proclamation
dated the 13th of December, the territories then in the
occupation of the Muharaja of Lahore, on the left of British bank
of the river Sutlej, were confiscated and annexed to the British
provinces; and, since that time, hostile operations have been prosecuted
by the two Governments, the one against the other, which have resulted
in the occupation of Lahore by the British troops; And whereas it
has been determined that, upon certain conditions, peace shall be
re-established between the two Governments, the following treaty
of peace between the Honorable English East India Company, and Muharaja
Dhuleep Singh Bahadoor, and his children, heirs, and successors,
has been concluded.
ARTICLE 1 There shall
be perpetual peace and friendship between the British Government,
on the one part, and Muharaja Dhuleep Singh, his heirs and successors,
on the other.
ARTICLE 2 The Muharaja
of Lahore renounces for himself, his heirs and successors, all claim
to, or connection with, the territories lying to the south of the
river Sutlej, and engages never to have any concern with those territories,
or the inhabitants thereof.
ARTICLE 3 The Muharaja
cedes to the Honorable Company
in perpetual sovereignty, all his
forts, territories, and rights, in the Doab [tract between two rivers],
or country, hill and plain, situated between the rivers Beas and
Sutlej.
ARTICLE 4 The British
Government having demanded from the Lahore State, as indemnification
for the Expenses of the war, in addition to the cession of territory
described in Article 3, payment of one and a half crores [15 million]
of rupees; and the Lahore Government being unable to pay the whole
of this sum at this time, or to give security satisfactory to the
British Government for its eventual payment; the Muharaja cedes
to the Honorable Company, in perpetual sovereignty, as equivalent
for one crore [10 million] of rupees all his forts, territories,
rights, and interests, in the hill countries which are situated
between the rivers Beas and Indus, including the provinces of Cashmere
[Kashmir] and Hazarah.
ARTICLE 5 The Muharaja
will pay to the British Government the sum of fifty lakhs [5 million]
of Rupees, on or before the ratification of this treaty.
ARTICLE 6 The Muharaja
engages to disband the mutinous troops of the Lahore army, taking
from [them] their arms; and his Highness agrees to recognise the
regular
regiments of infantry, upon the system, and according
to the regulations as to pay and allowances, observed in the time
of the late Muharaja Runjeet Singh.
ARTICLE 7 The regular
army of the Lahore State shall henceforth be limited to 25 battalions
of infantry, consisting of 800 bayonets each, with 12,000 cavalry:
this number at no time to be exceeded without the concurrence of
the British Government.
ARTICLE 8 The Muharaja
will surrender to the British Government all the guns, thirty-six
in number which have been pointed against the British troops
ARTICLE 9 The control
of the rivers Beas and Sutlej,
and the control of the [river]
Indus from Mithenkot to the borders of Baloochistan, shall, in respect
to tolls and ferries, rest with the British Government. ... Regarding
the ferries between the two countries actively, at the several ghats
[landing-places] of the said rivers, it is agreed that the British
Government, after defraying all the expenses of the management and
establishments, shall account to the Lahore Government for one half
of the net profits of the ferry collections.
ARTICLE 10 If the British
Government should, at any time, desire to pass troops through the
territories of his Highness the Muharaja for the protection of the
British territories, or those of their allies, the British troops
shall on such special occasions, due notice being given, be allowed
to pass through the Lahore territories.
The British Government
will pay the full price of all
provisions and boats [provided],
and will make fair compensation for all private property that may
be endamaged. The British Government will moreover observe
all due consideration to the religious feelings of the inhabitants
of those tracts through which the army may pass.
ARTICLE 11 The Muharaja
engages never to take, or retain, in his service, any British subject,
nor the subject of any European or American State, without the consent
of the British Government.
ARTICLE 12 In consideration
of the services rendered by Raja Golab Singh of Jummoo [Jammu] to
the Lahore State, towards procuring the restoration of the relations
of amity between the Lahore and British Governments, the Muharaja
hereby agrees to recognize the independent sovereignty of Raja Golab
Singh
; and the British Government, in consideration of the good
conduct of Raja Golab Singh, also agrees to recognise his independence
, and to admit him to the privileges of a separate treaty with
the British Government.
ARTICLE 13 In the event
of any dispute of difference arising between the Lahore State and
Raja Golab Singh, the same shall be referred to the arbitration
of the British Government; and by its decision the Muharaja engages
to abide.
ARTICLE 14 The limits
of the Lahore territories shall not be, at any time, changed, without
the concurrence of the British Government.
ARTICLE 15 The British
Government will not exercise any interference in the internal administration
of the Lahore State; but in all cases or questions which may be
referred to the British Government, the Governor General will give
the aid of his advice and good offices for the furtherance of the
interests of the Lahore Government.
ARTICLE 16 The subjects
of either State shall, on visiting the territories of the other,
be on the footing of the subjects of the most favoured nation.
..
Done at Lahore, this 9th day of March, in the year of
our Lord 1846, corresponding with the 10th day of Rubbee-ool-awwul',
1262, Hijree, and ratified on the same day.
From K.P. Agarwal, British Take-over
of India: Modus Operandi, 2 vols. (New Delhi: Oriental Publishers
& Distributors, 1979), 2:356-63.
Introduction and questions Σ
Norman G. Owen
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